Skip to main content
Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Download PDF

Ethnomedicinal herbs in African traditional medicine with potential activity for the prevention, treatment, and management of coronavirus disease 2019

Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences volume 7, Article number: 72 (2021) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Ethnomedicine, a study of traditional medicine, is significant in drug discovery and development. African traditional medicine has been in existence for several thousands of years, and several drugs have been discovered and developed from it.

Main text

The deadly coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by a novel coronavirus known as SARS-CoV-2 has widely spread globally with high mortality and morbidity. Its prevention, treatment and management still pose a serious challenge. A drug for the cure of this disease is yet to be developed. The clinical management at present is based on symptomatic treatment as presented by individuals infected and this is by combination of more than two drugs such as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic, and anti-microbials. Literature search was performed through electronic searches of PubMed, Google Scholar, and several research reports including WHO technical documents and monographs.

Conclusion

Drug discovery from herbs is essential and should be exploited for the discovery of drugs for the management of COVID-19. This review is aimed at identifying ethnomedicinal herbs available in Africa that could be used for the discovery and development of a drug for the prevention, treatment, and management of the novel coronavirus disease 2019.

Background

Ethnomedicine is a study of traditional medicine involving bioactive compounds of plants and animals origin from diverse cultural groups. It comprises ethnobiology, ethnobotany, and ethnopharmacology. The significance of ethnomedicinal study is for drug discovery. Scientific ethnomedicinal studies have been used and adopted as a source of lead compound identification in drug discovery and development processes [1, 2].

Traditional medicine is the “sum total of the knowledge, skills, and practices based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement, or treatment of physical and mental illness” [3]. African traditional medicine is highly dependent on cultural, religious, and spiritual belief. It is as old as the world and still in existence even after the introduction of science-based medicine by the Europeans [4].

The causative agent of the deadly coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a novel coronavirus known as SARS-CoV-2. COVID-19 outbreak was declared as a pandemic by the World Health Organization on 11 March 2020 due to the fast, wide spread and severity of the disease in 114 countries globally. The treatment and management of the disease has posed a serious challenge. Various studies on how to mitigate the scourge of this pandemic is in progress. Studies on the use of ethnomedicinal herbs in the prevention, treatment, and management of COVID-19 are obtainable in literatures [5,6,7].

The clinical management of COVID-19 generally involves treatment of the symptoms associated with the disease usually involving the combination of more than two drugs such as antioxidants for the reduction of oxidative stress which may cause injury to the lung cells [8], anti-inflammatory agents for the reduction of inflammation due to rapid viral replication and cell infiltration [9], anti-pyretic agent for reduction of fever [10], anti-microbials for the reduction and treatment of opportunistic infections due to reduced immunity [11], anti-viral for inhibition of viral entry and reduction in viral replication [12], nutritional vitamins, and minerals like ascorbic acid and zinc to reinforce the immune system [13, 14].

Literature search was performed to identify and extract relevant information through electronic searches of PubMed, Google Scholar, and several research reports including WHO technical documents and monographs.

This review attempts to identify ethnomedicinal herbs (with their vernacular names for ease of identification) available in Africa that could be used to develop drugs for the prevention, treatment and management of the novel coronavirus disease 2019. Some of these plants are not indigenous to Africa but have been cultivated for their beneficial values. It is necessary to source for these herbs locally to reduce cost of research and development and for reproducibility and sustainability.

Main text

Abrus precatorius Linn. Gaertn

Family: Fabaceae

Common names: Rosary pea, Jequirity, Crab’s eyes

Local names: Mongaluchi (Swahili, Kenya); Mutiti (Lozi, Zambia) Ndela (Chagga, Tanzania); Mantumbi (Badyara, Senegal); Amabope (Ndebele, South Africa); nsimani (Tsonga, South Africa); Iwere-jeje, Ojuologbo (Yoruba, Nigeria); Anya nnunu (Igbo, Nigeria), Da marzaya (Hausa, Nigeria) [15,16,17].

Bioactive compounds: Abrine, Abrectorin, Abrusoside A, Abricin, Abraline, Choline, Glycyrrhizin, Luteolin, Trigonelline [18, 19].

figure a

Abrus precatorius is an herbaceous, perennial, flowering climbing plant. It is indigenous to Africa, Asia, and Australia but now naturalized in many countries. The plant is widely distributed throughout Africa. The leaves are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of cough, cold, fever, conjunctivitis, pains, constipation, yellow fever, tuberculosis, and other pulmonary problems; the seeds are used as contraceptives and for the treatment of eye inflammation and joint pains; the stem bark and roots are used for the treatment of diabetes, venereal diseases, bacterial, and fungi diseases and as sedatives [15, 20].

Some of the pharmacological activities of Abrus precatorius that have been reported are anti-convulsant, anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-arthritic, anti-rheumatic, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant, anti-depressant, anti-microbial, and anti-viral activity [19, 21, 22].

The leaf and root of Abrus precatorius would be a potential source of anti-coronavirus drug since it contains glycyrrhizin as documented by [19, 23]. Several studies reported the activity of glycyrrhizin against coronaviruses [24,25,26].

Achyranthes aspera Linn.

Family: Amaranthaceae

Common names: Devil’s horsewhip, Prickly chaff flower

Local names: Isinama (Zulu South Africa); Moxato (Botswana); Bhomane (Lesotho); Udombo (Zimbabwe); Turura (Swahili, Kenya); Vatofosy (Madagascar); Epa aboro (Yoruba, Nigeria); Odụdu ngwele (Igbo, Nigeria) [27, 28].

Bioactive compounds: Ecdysterone, Eugenol, Betaine, Triacontanol [29].

figure b

Achyranthes aspera is an erect perennial herbal weed. The origin of the plant is not known but it is believed to be indigenous to either South Asia or/and Africa. It is widely naturalized in the tropics and sub-tropics. All the plant parts (leaves, seeds, roots, and shoots) are used in African traditional medicines for the treatment of malaria, ulcer, fever, arthritis, diarrhea, dysentery, hemorrhoids, itching, and headache [28]. It is also used as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory agent, expectorant, diuretic, and inhalation for respiratory problems such as pneumonia and asthma [30, 31].

Achyranthes aspera possesses weak anti-viral activity [32]; however; it has good antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. It is rich in ascorbic acid which confers the antioxidant property that boosts immunity against infections like SARS-coronavirus [33, 34]. The anti-inflammatory properties could be beneficial in alleviating inflammation due to SARS-coronavirus [28, 35]. Achyranthes aspera will be effective in the management of COVID-19.

Allium sativum L.

Family: Liliaceae

Common names: Garlic

Local names: Thuum (Arabic, Egypt); Ivimbampunzi (Xhosa, South Africa); Kitunguu-saumu (Swahili, Tanzania); Tafarnuwa Hausa, Nigeria); Ayo-ishi (Igbo, Nigeria); Ayuu (Yoruba, Nigeria) [36,37,38].

Bioactive constituents: Ajoene, Allicin, Diallyl disulfide, Vinyldithiins [39, 40].

figure c

Allium sativum is a monocotyledonous erect flowering plant native to central Asia. The plant is now widely cultivated and distributed all over the world. The part of the plant mainly utilized in traditional medicine in Africa and in other countries is the bulb. It has been used as a remedy in the past during epidemics such as amoebic dysentery, cholera, diphtheria, tuberculosis, and influenza in Egypt [41]. It is used in African traditional medicine in the treatment of skin diseases, intestinal disorders, respiratory diseases, bacterial infections, worm infestation, and tumors [42].

Pharmacological activities of garlic as highlighted in scientific literatures include anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, cardiovascular, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, and anti-cancer activity [40, 42, 43].

Keyaerts et al. reported Allium sativum of possessing marked antiviral activity against coronaviruses [44]. Thuy et al. suggested Allium sativum to be a valuable source of anti-SARS-CoV-2 [45].

Annona muricata Linn.

Family: Annonaceae

Common names: Soursop, Graviola, Prickly custard apple

Local names: Soursap (Krio, Sierra Leone); Soursapi (Mende, Sierra Leone); Omusitafeli (Basoga Uganda); Ekitafeli (Baganda Uganda); Araticum (Benin); Sabasaba, Ebom beti (Cameroon); Apre (Ghana); Corossol (Madagascar); Ebo, Apekan (Yoruba, Nigeria); Fasadarur or Tuwon biri (Hausa, Nigeria); Sawansop (Ibo, Nigeria) [46,47,48,49,50].

Bioactive compounds: Annonaceous acetogenins-Annocatalin, Annomuricin A, Annocatacin, Muricatocin [51].

figure d

Annona muricata is a perennial small woody evergreen tree considered to be native to North and South America. The plant is widely found in East and West Africa as cultivar. The leaf, back, root, and fruit have been in use for decades in African traditional medicine. The leaves are used as anti-inflammatory agent [52], and also used to treat diabetes, headaches, rheumatism, and insomnia [53]. The ground seeds are used to treat coughs, pain, and skin diseases [51].

Annona muricata has been reported to possess anti-microbial and anti-viral activity [54]. The seed is reported to possess anti-SARS coronavirus activity. Oyebamiji et al. discovered that Annona muricata seed has a promising ability to inhibit SARS coronavirus [55]. Trivedi et al. also highlighted that the seeds of Annona muricara can be used to inhibit COVID-19 pathway [56].

Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd.

Family: Asteraceae

Common names: Wild wormwood, African wormwood

Local names; Wilde-als (Afrikaans, South Africa); Umhlonyane (Xhosa, South Africa and Zimbabwe); Mhlonyane (Zulu, South Africa); Lengana (Zimbabwe); Nyumba (Luo, Kenya); Ariti (Amharic, Ethiopia) [57].

Bioactive compounds: Acacetin, Scopoletin, Yomogiartemin, Dihydroxybishopsolicepolide [58, 59].

figure e

Artemisia afra is a perennial woody shrub, a specie of Artemisia which is indigenous to Africa. It originates and widely distributed in South Africa, spreading to some countries in North and East Africa. The roots, stems, and leaves are used in African traditional medicine to treat coughs, respiratory diseases, fevers, asthma, malaria, colds, chills, gout, diabetes, influenza, and convulsions [59, 60]. Studies on the activity of the plant on viruses such as HIV and influenza have been reported in scientific publications [61, 62].

The traditional use of Artemisia afra to treat coughs, respiratory diseases like asthma, whooping cough, and bronchitis prompted researchers to carry out scientific studies on the plant to ascertain the claim of traditional practitioners. Some studies highlighted and established the activity of the plant as claimed by traditional practitioners [63, 64]. Since Artemisia afra has been established to possess activity for the treatment of respiratory diseases, it could be beneficial as a supplement in the management of SARS-coronavirus. Although there is no record in the literature which indicates that A. afra possesses activity against coronaviruses but it could be used to support the management of COVID 19.

A specie of Artemisia known Artemisia annua found in Asia has some documented scientific evidences of activity against coronaviruses [65, 66]. This plant is now widely cultivated is some countries in Africa especially East Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Madagascar) [67].

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

Family: Meliaceae

Common name: Neem

Local names: Aforo-oyinbo (Yoruba, Nigeria); Aku shorop, Ogwu iba, Ogwu akom (Igbo, Nigeria); Dogonyaro (Hausa, Nigeria); Nimtso (Krobo, Ghana); Kingtsho (Ga, Ghana); Dua gyare (Ashanti, Ghana); Liliti (Ewe, Ghana); Kinitsi (Togo); Mwarubaini, Mkilifi (Swahili, Kenya and Tanzania) [17, 68,69,70].

Bioactive compounds: Azadirachtin, Nimbin, Nimbolide, Nimbidin, Nimbidol [71, 72].

figure f

Azadirachta indica is an evergreen drought-resistant woody plant native to India and now widely seen growing in West and East Africa. Every part of the plant (stem, leaves, bark, roots, seeds, and flowers) has been used in traditional medicine in Nigeria and other countries like India to cure different conditions such as malaria, headache, stomach ulcers, jaundice, anemia, dental problems, bacterial, fungi, and viral infections [68, 73].

Anti-viral activity of Azadirachta indica has widely been reported on some viruses (apart from coronaviruses) such as coxsackieviruses, dengue virus, and hepatitis C virus [72, 74]. Recently, scientists have reported anti-viral activity of Azadirachta indica against coronaviruses as a result of the urgency required for the development of a specific anti-viral drug for the prevention, treatment, and management of COVID-19. Pooladanda et al. [75]; Borkotoky and Banerjee [76]; Ather and Costigliola [77] reported possible beneficial effect of Azadirachta indica in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infections.

Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Lindl.) Schltr

Family: Asclepiadaceae

Common names: Ghana quinine, Yellow dye root

Local names: Nibima (Twi, Ghana); Kadze (Ewe, Ghana); Kɔli mekari (Bantu, Kenya); Paran pupa (Yoruba, Nigeria); Akpaoku (Igbo, Nigeria); Gangamau (Hausa, Nigeria); Ouidoukoi (Bambara, Mali) [78,79,80]..

Bioactive compounds: Cryptolepicarboline, Cryptolepine, Cryptospirolepine, Cyptomisrine, Cryptoquindoline [81].

figure g

Cryptolepis sanguinolenta is a thin-stemmed, climbing, twining perennial flowering shrub. It is indigenous to Central, Eastern, and Western African regions. The root is used in African traditional medicine for the treatment of malaria, jaundice, hepatitis, hypertension, stomach and intestinal disorders, urinary and upper respiratory tract infections, rheumatism, amoebic dysentery, diarrhea, and venereal diseases [78, 82, 83]. The pharmacological activities of the plants are anti-plasmodial, anti-cancer, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, hypotensive, anti-pyretic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-hyperglycemic activities [81, 84].

Cryptolepis sanguinolenta anti-viral activity on herpes implex virus 1 and 2 was reported by Buhner 2013 [85]. Gyebi et al. highlighted the plant as a potential inhibitor of coronavirus [86].

Curcuma longa Linn.

Family: Zingiberaceae

Common names: Turmeric

Local names: Mandano or Manjano (Swahili, Kenya); kurkum (Arabic, Somalia, Egypt); Ata ile pupa (Yoruba, Nigeria); Gangamau (Hausa, Nigeria); Nwandumo, Ohu boboch (Igbo, Nigeria) [87, 88].

Bioactive constituents: Curcumin, Quercetin, Curcuminoids [89, 90].

figure h

Curcuma longa is a rhizomatous, perennial, small flowering herbaceous plant indigenous to South Asia. The plant is widely cultivated in many parts of East and West Africa and other continents for its culinary spicy and medicinal value. The rhizome is the most commonly used part in Africa for the traditional treatment of some ailments such as headache, skin diseases, jaundice, smallpox, microbial infections, diarrhea, diabetes, arthritis, anorexia, cough, sinusitis, conjunctivitis, and diabetic wounds [17, 91].

The pharmacological activities of Curcuma longa has been extensively studied and found to possess anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-coagulant, anti-fertility, anti-neoplastic, anti-microbial, anti-viral, wound healing, cardiovascular protective, hepatoprotective, and immunostimulant activity [92, 93].

The plant has also been studied as a potential source of SARS coronavirus treatment, prevention, and management. Wen et al. [94] and Zahedipour et al. [95] reported Curcuma longa as a plant with potent anti-viral activity against SARS coronaviruses, so it could be effective in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2. Lin and Ying [96] exploited the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of curcumin for the treatment of pneumonia in patients as a result of COVID-19 infection.

Euphorbia hirta Linn.

Family: Euphorbiaceae

Common names: Hairy spurge, Garden spurge, Milkweed, Asthma-plant.

Local names: Rooi euphorbia (South Africa); Makore selu (Badyara, Senegal); ku tim (Diola-flup, Senegal); Fuŋkele (Limba, Sierra Leone); kakaweadwe (Akan-Asante, Ghana); Ahinkogye (Twi, Ghana); Akubaa (Nzema, Ghana); Noonon Kurciyaa (Hausa, Nigeria); Obụ Anị, Oba Ala, Udani, ogwu ngwo (Igbo, Nigeria); Akun Esan, Buje, Ege-Ile, Emi-Ile (Yoruba, Nigeria) [97, 98].

Bioactive compounds: Rutin, Euphorbin E, Kaempferol, Afzelin, Quercitrin, Myricitrin, Choline, Camphol [99].

figure i

Euphorbia hirta is a small annual hairy weed that is native to tropical America, and now widely spread to the tropics and subtropics. All the plant parts are widely used in African traditional herbal medicine for the treatment of wounds, boil, diarrhea, dysentery, respiratory and bronchial disorders, and malaria [17, 98].

Euphorbia hirta has been reported to possess anti-malarial, anti-helmintic, anti-asthmatic, anti-spasmodic, anti-fertility, sedative, wound healing, anti-bacterial, and anti-fungal properties [99, 100]. The plant was reported to possess anti-viral activity against HIV-1 and HIV-2 [101].

Euphorbia hirta has no anti-SARS-coronavirus activity but has good activity on respiratory problems which is a major symptom of coronavirus. Shahrajabian et al. listed it as one of the most important herb used for the treatment of respiratory diseases [102]. So, it can be used to support the treatment and management of COVID-19 patients. Onyeji highlighted in his study that Euphorbia Hirta can alleviate some of the respiratory symptoms associated with COVID-19 [103].

Garcinia kola Heckel

Family: Clusiaceae

Common names: Bitter kola

Local names: Tweapia (Anyi, Ghana); Akuilu (Igbo, Nigeria); Orogbo (Yoruba, Nigeria); Namijin goro (Hausa, Nigeria) [104, 105].

Bioactive constituents: Kolanone, Kolaflavanone, Garcinoic acid, Kolaviron, and Garciniflavanone [105, 106].

figure j

Garcinia kola is an evergreen, perennial, medium-sized flowering tree that is indigenous to Central and Western Africa especially Benin, Cameroon, Congo, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, and Senegal where they are mostly found and used. Every part of the plant (leaves, fruits, seeds, stems, barks, twigs, and roots) is used by African traditional medical practitioner in the treatment of various diseases such as bronchitis, throat infection, skin infection, headache, stomach ache, gastritis, cold, cough, malaria, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, malignant tumors, gonorrhea, fresh wounds, liver disorders, and jaundice [107, 108].

The pharmacological activities of the plant include anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-asthma, anti-arthritis, anti-ulcer, anti-hypertensive, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-diabetic, and anti-hepatotoxic activities [106, 109].

Oladele et al. [110] observed that Garcinia kola has anti-SARS-CoV-2 inhibitory potential while Ikpa et al. [111] listed it as a plant with promising result against coronaviruses.

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

Family: Fabaceae

Common names: Licorice

Local names: Susu (Swahili, Kenya); Dhalashada (Somali, Somalia); Irkessus (Arabic, Egypt); Ewe omisinmisin (Yoruba, Nigeria) [112, 113].

Bioactive constituents: Glycyrrhizin, Licoriphenone, Glycyrrhizic acid, Prenyllicoflavone A, etc. [114].

figure k

Glycyrrhiza glabra is an herbaceous perennial herb native to south-western Asia and southern Europe but widely cultivated for commercial purposes in North Africa (Egypt) and South Africa. The roots and rhizomes are used in ancient Egypt to treat upper respiratory disease like common cold, cough, bronchitis, and sore throats. It is used to treat heartburns and skin diseases [115].

Glycyrrhiza glabra possesses some pharmacological activities which includes anti-ulcer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-allergic, anti-cancer, anti-malarial, memory-enhancing, anti-microbial, and anti-viral activity [116, 117].

The anti-coronavirus activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra has been extensively studied and reported to be as a result of the presence of glycyrrhizic acid and glycyrrhizin [114, 118]. Several reports displaying anti-SARS-CoV activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra are highlighted in literatures. Hoever et al. confirmed in their research that licorice possesses anti-SARS-CoV [25].

In a recent study on COVID-19, Glycyrrhiza glabra was reported to successful inhibit SARS-CoV replication and was recommended for the management COVID-19 [25, 66, 119, 120].

Moringa oleifera Lam.

Family: Moringaceae

Common names: Horseradish tree, Drumstick

Local names: La-Banyu (Bwaba, Burkina Faso); Atiuwuse (Ewe, Ghana); Anamambo (Malagasy, Madagascar); Neverday (Wolof, Senega); Zagalanda (Tonga, Zambia); Mlonge (Swahili, Kenya, and Tanzania); Al-ruwag (Arabic, Sudan); Ewe ile, Ewe igbale (Yoruba , Nigeria); Odudu oyibo, Okwe oyibo (Igbo, Nigeria); Zongallagandi, Bagaruwar masar (Hausa , Nigeria) [121,122,123].

Bioactive constituents: Apigenin, Luteolin, Phytosterols, Quercetin, Terpenoids, Caffeic acid [124,125,126].

figure l

Moringa oleifera is a fast-growing drought-resistant, deciduous, perennial softwood tree which is native to India but now widely cultivated and naturalized in Africa and many other tropical and subtropical countries for variety of uses such as food and traditional herbal medicine. All the parts of the plant are used traditionally in many African countries for bone setting and enhancement of lactation. They are also used in the treatment of impotence, heartburn, asthma, flu, cough, pneumonia, common cold, bronchitis, syphilis, malnutrition, diabetes, hypertension, gastric ulcers, malaria, and fever [127, 128].

The pharmacological activities of Moringa oleifera are numerous and includes, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, local anesthetic, anti-allergic, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-cancer, cardiovascular, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, anti-ulcer, diuretic, anti-helmintic, hypoglycemic, blood lipid-reducing, immunomodulatory, and anti-diarrheal activity [124, 125, 129].

Moringa oleifera possesses some anti-viral activities but not on coronaviruses [130, 131]. However, they could be used to complement and supplement the management of SARS-CoV diseases because of its richness in minerals (zinc, potassium, calcium, magnesium), and vitamins (vitamin C) [132, 133]. Adejuwon et al. reported an herbal mixture formulation containing Moringa oleifera to possess SARS-CoV-2 inhibitory activity [134].

Nigella sativa L.

Family: Ranunculaceae

Common names: black seed, black cumin, fennel flower

Local names: Habbah Sawda’ or ‘Habbatul Barakah’ (Arabic, Egypt); Tikur azmud (Amharic, Ethopia); Habatu Sauda (Hausa, Nigeria); Asofeyeje (Yoruba, Nigeria ) [135, 136].

Bioactive compounds: Thymoquinone, Cymene, Carvacrol, Thymohydroquinone, Dihydrothymoquinone, thymol [137].

figure m

Nigella sativa is an annual flowering plant native to North Africa and some other regions like Eastern Mediterranean, the Indian subcontinent, and Southwest Asia. The seed of the plant has been in use for centuries in Africa and across many continents. It is widely used traditionally to treat asthma, cough, bronchitis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, and hypertension, and to boost the body’s immune system to fight illness [138]. It possesses pharmacological properties such as anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, analgesic, antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-parasitic, and anti-viral properties [139, 140].

Ulasli et al. reported a decrease in the replication of Coronavirus with ethanol extract of Nigella sativa seed [141]. There are more recent studies which showed that Nigella sativa possesses potential anti-coronavirus activity [142,143,144].

Psidium guajava Linn.

Family: Myrtaceae

Common names: Guava

Local names: Koejawal (Afrikaans, South Africa), gouyav (Seychelles Creole, Seychelles),

Guava (Hausa, Nigeria); Gurfa (Yoruba, Nigeria); Gwaibwa (Igbo, Nigeria); Mupeera (Luganda, Uganda); Biabo (Mandinka, Mali); Mpera (Swahili, Tanzania, and Kenya); Zeitun, (Tigrigna, Eritrea) [145, 146].

Bioactive compounds: Ascorbic acid, Caryophyllene, Gallic acid [147].

figure n

Psidium guajava is a perennial, shallow-rooted evergreen small tree; it is believed to be native to tropical America but now naturalized and widely cultivated and distributed in almost all African countries and other tropical and subtropical countries. The leaf and bark of the plant have been used for several decades in African traditional medicine. It is used for the treatment of malaria in South Africa, Nigeria, and Tanzania; treatment of hypertension and diabetes in Togo and Nigeria; tuberculosis in Nigeria; HIV in Tanzania; and bacterial infection in South Africa and Guinea [148,149,150].

Some of the pharmacological activities of Psidium guajava that are reported include anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-hypertensive, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immune-system stimulatory, anti-diabetic, and anti-plasmodial activities [151].

Psidium guajava was reported by Fukumoto et al. in a Taiwanese patent in 2010 to possess Anti-SARS coronavirus activity [152]. Some studies have been carried out showing that Psidium guajava has some potential bioactive compounds that can breakdown coronavirus proteins [126, 153, 154].

Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Family: Zingiberaceae

Common names: Ginger

Local names: Gnamakou (Dioula, Burkina Faso); Akakaduro (Akan, Ghana); Didière (Wolof, Senegal); Tangawizi (Swahili, Tanzania); Citta (Fulfulde, Nigeria); Citaraho (Hausa, Nigeria); Jinja (Igbo, Nigeria); Atale (Yoruba, Nigeria) [155,156,157].

Bioactive constituents: Zingiberene, Zingerone, Gingerol, Gingerdiol, Shogaol, Paradols, Curcumene, etc. [158, 159].

figure o

Zingiber officinale is a rhizomatous, perennial, herbaceous flowering plant which originates from Southeast Asia and now extensively cultivated in most tropical and subtropical countries including African countries like Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, Madagascar, Nigeria, Senegal, and Tanzania. All parts of the plant, especially the rhizome are used in African traditional medicine for the treatment of various conditions like indigestion, gastric ulcerations, constipation, nausea, vomiting, arthritis, rheumatism, pains, fever, cough and cold, sore throats, lung diseases, cramps, hypertension, infectious diseases, asthma, and diabetes [160, 161].

Zingiber officinale possesses high pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-platelet, anti-rhinoviral, cardiovascular protection, glucose lowering, and anti-cancer activities [158, 162, 163].

Several studies on Zingiber officinale as a potential inhibitor of infections from coronaviruses have been reported in literature [126, 164, 165]. It was recommended as a component of a formulation for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 [166, 167].

Conclusion

Drug discovery from herbs is of great importance which should be exploited for the discovery of drugs for the management of COVID-19. In this review, fifteen (15) ethnomedicinal herbs used in African traditional medicine from different countries in Africa which may be valuable in the prevention, treatment and management of coronavirus disease 2019 were identified (Table 1 and Fig. 1). Due to the complex nature of SARS-CoV-2 and clinical presentation of COVID-19 disease, combining two or more extracts with various pharmacological activity from these herbs in a standard dosage form such as capsule, tablets, syrups, and injections is necessary in the management of the disease. This combination would improve adherence but care must be taken to ensure that all ingredients in the formulation are compatible otherwise it may lead to therapeutic failure or toxicity.

Table 1 Summary of the identified ethnomedicinal herbs
Full size table
Fig. 1
figure 1

Photos of ethnomedicinal herbs with potential activity for the management of coronavirus disease 2019

Full size image

In conclusion, this review will serve as a source of information for future research in the selection of herbs which could be used in the management of COVID-19. However, experimental analyses and clinical studies would be required for validation.

Availability of data and materials

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

References

  1. Johnson M, Sargent CF (1996) Ethnopharmacology: the conjunction of medical ethnography and the biology of therapeutic action. In: Medical anthropology: Contemporary theory and method. Praeger, Connecticut, pp 132–133

    Google Scholar 

  2. Patwrdhan BK, Vaidya BD, Chorghade M (2004) Ayurveda and natural products drug discovery. Curr Sci 86(6):789–799

    Google Scholar 

  3. WHO (2008) Traditional medicine: definitions. World Health Organization Fact sheet N°134.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Abdullahi AA (2011) Trends and challenges of traditional medicine in Africa. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med 8:115–123

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Benarba B, Pandiella A (2020) Medicinal plants as sources of active molecules against COVID-19. Front Pharmacol 11:1189. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.01189

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Boukhatem MN, Setzer WN (2020) Aromatic herbs, medicinal plant-derived essential oils, and phytochemical extracts as potential therapies for Coronaviruses: Future perspectives. Plants (Basel) 9(6):800. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9060800

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Maxmen A (2020) More than 80 clinical trials launch to test coronavirus treatments. Nature 578(7795):347–348. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-00444-3

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Ntyonga-Pono MP (2020) COVID-19 infection and oxidative stress: an under-explored approach for prevention and treatment? Pan Afr Med 35(Suppl 2):12. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2020.35.2.22877

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Runfeng L, Yunlong H, Jicheng H, Weiqi P, Quihai M, Yongxia S et al (2020) Lianhuaqingwen exerts anti-viral and anti-inflammatory activity against novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). Pharmacol Res 156:104761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104761

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Ang L, Song E, Lee HW, Lee MS (2020) Herbal medicine for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Med 9(5):1583. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9051583

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Rossato L, Negrão FJ, Simionatto S (2020) Could the COVID-19 pandemic aggravate antimicrobial resistance. Am J Infect Control 48(9):1129–1130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2020.06.192

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Panyod S, Ho CT, Sheen LY (2020) Dietary therapy and herbal medicine for COVID-19 prevention: A review and perspective. J Tradit Complement 10(4):420–427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2020.05.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Aman F, Masood S (2020) How nutrition can help to fight against COVID-19 pandemic. Pak J Med Sci 36(COVID19-S4):S121–S123. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.COVID19-S4.2776

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Kumar A, Kubota Y, Chernov M, Kasuya H (2020) Potential role of zinc supplementation in prophylaxis and treatment of COVID-19. Med Hypotheses 144:109848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2020.109848

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Erinoso SM, Aworinde DO (2012) Ethnobotanical survey of some medicinal plants used in traditional health care in Abeokuta areas of Ogun State, Nigeria. Afr J Pharm Pharmaco 6(18):1352–1362

    Google Scholar 

  16. Tandiwe N, Thulisile J (2013) Abrus precatorius L. subsp. africanus Verdc. Leguminosae: Papilionoideae. Flowering Plants Afr 63:50–55

    Google Scholar 

  17. Iwu MM (2014) Handbook of African medicinal plants, 2nd edn. Taylor and Francis, London. https://doi.org/10.1201/b16292

    Book  Google Scholar 

  18. Garaniya N, Bapodra A (2014) Ethno botanical and Phytophrmacological potential of Abrus precatorius L.: A review. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 4(Suppl 1):S27–S34. https://doi.org/10.12980/APJTB.4.2014C1069

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Jain A, Gupta PP (2015) In silico comparative molecular docking study and analysis of glycyrrhizin from Abrus precatorius (L.) against ntidiabetic activity. Eur J Med Plants 6(4):212–222. https://doi.org/10.9734/EJMP/2015/13855

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Umaru IJ, Aduwamai UH, Umaru FJ, John KI, Umaru M, Usman A et al (2020) Evaluation of some medicinal plants diversity and compendium information on the usage in Michika, Adamawa state. South Asian Res J Bio Appl Biosci 2(3):38–46. https://doi.org/10.36346/sarjbab.2020.v02i03.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Taur DJ, Patil RN, Patil RY (2017) Antiasthmatic related properties of Abrus precatorius leaves on various models. J Tradit Complement Med 7(4):428–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.12.007

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Mondal S, Ghosh S, Anusuri KC, Ganapaty S (2017) Toxicological studies and assessment of pharmacological activities of Abrus precatorius L. (Fabaceae) ethanolic leaves extract in the management of pain, psychiatric and neurological conditions-An in-vivo study. J Appl Pharm Sci 7:207–216. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2017.70229

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Karwasara VS, Jain R, Tomar P, Dixit VK (2010) Elicitation as yield enhancement strategy for glycyrrhizin production by cell cultures of Abrus precatorius Linn. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 46(4):354–362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11627-010-9278-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Hoever G, Baltina L, Michaelis M, Kondratenko R, Tolstikov GA, Doer HW et al (2005) Antiviral activity of glycyrrhizic acid derivatives against SARS-coronavirus. J Med Chem 48(4):1256–1259. https://doi.org/10.1021/jm0493008

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Murck H (2020) Symptomatic protective action of glycyrrhizin (Licorice) in COVID-19 infection? Front Immunol 11:1239. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01239

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Luo P, Liu D, Li J (2020) Pharmacological perspective: glycyrrhizin may be an efficacious therapeutic agent for COVID-19. Int J Antimicrob Agents 55(6):105995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Quattrocchi U (1999) CRC world dictionary of plant names, common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology. CRC Press, Florida

    Google Scholar 

  28. Sharma V, Chaudhary U (2015) An overview on indigenous knowledge of Achyranthes aspera. J Crit Rev 2(1):7–19

    Google Scholar 

  29. Praveen KS (2014) Achyranthes aspera: A potent immunostimulating plant for traditional medicine. Int J Pharm Sci Res 5(5):1601–1611. https://doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.5(5).1601-11

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Ajibesin KK, Ekpo BA, Bala DN, Essien EE, Adesanya SA (2008) Ethnobotanical survey of Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria. J Ethnopharmacol 115(3):387–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.10.021

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Edwin S, Jarald SE, Deb L, Jain A, Kinger H, Dutt KR et al (2008) Wound healing and antioxidant activity of Achyranthes aspera. Pharm Bio 46(12):824–828. https://doi.org/10.1080/13880200802366645

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Mukherjee H, Ojha D, Bag P, Chandel HS, Bhattacharyya S, Chatterjee TK, Mukherjee PK, Chakraborti S, Chattopadhyay D (2013) Anti-herpes virus activities of Achyranthes aspera: An Indian ethnomedicine, and its triterpene acid. Microbiol Res 168(4):238–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2012.11.002

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Beaulah A, Sadiq M, Santhi J (2011) Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Achyranthes aspera: An in vitro study. Der Pharma Chemica 3(5):662–670

    Google Scholar 

  34. Carr AC, Maggini S (2017) Vitamin C and immune function. Nutrients 9(11):1211. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9111211

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Vetrichelvan T, Jegadeesan M (2003) Effect of alcohol extract of Achyranthes aspera Linn. on acute and subacute inflammation. Phytother Res. 17(1):77–79. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1070

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Sihotang VB (2011) Ethnomedicinal study of the Sundanese people at the Bodogol area, Gede Pangrango Mountain National Park, West Java. Gard Bull Singapore 63:519–526

    Google Scholar 

  37. Asowata-Ayodele AM, Afolayan AJ, Otunola GA (2016) Ethnobotanical survey of culinary herbs and spices used in the traditional medicinal system of Nkonkobe Municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa. South Afr J Bot 104:69–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2016.01.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Tijani K, Alfa A, Sezor A (2019) Studies on phytochemical, nutraceutical profiles and potential medicinal values of Allium sativum Linn (Lilliaceae) on bacterial meningitis. Int Neuropsych Dis J 13(2):1–15. https://doi.org/10.9734/indj/2019/v13i230105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Zeng Y, Li Y, Yang J, Pu X, Du J, Yang X et al (2017) Therapeutic role of functional components in Alliums for preventive chronic disease in human being. Evid Based Complement Altern Med. 2017:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/9402849

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Batiha GE, Beshbishy AM, Wasef LG, Elewa YH, Al-Sagan AA, Abd El-Hack ME et al (2020) Chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of garlic (Allium sativum L.): A review. Nutrients 12(3):872. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030872

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Petrovska BB, Cekovska S (2010) Extracts from the history and medical properties of garlic. Pharmacogn Rev 4(7):106–110. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.65321

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Sulaiman FA, Kazeem MO, Waheed AM, Temowo SO, Azeez IO, Faridat I et al (2014) Antimicrobial and toxic potential of aqueous extracts of Allium sativum, Hibiscus sabdariffa and Zingiber officinale in Wistar rats. J Taibah Univ Sci 8(4):315–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtusci.2014.05.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Kumar P, Yadav J, Jain M, Yadav P, Goel AK, Yadava PM (2016) Bactericidal efficacy of Allium sativum (garlic) against multidrug resistant Vibrio cholerae o1 epidemic strains. Defence Sci J 66(5):479–484. https://doi.org/10.14429/dsj.66.10701

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Keyaerts E, Vijgen L, Pannecouque C, Damme EV, Peumans W, Egberink H et al (2007) Plant lectins are potent inhibitors of coronaviruses by interfering with two targets in the viral replication cycle. Antiviral Res 75(3):179–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.03.003

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Thuy BT, My TT, Hai NT, Hieu LT, Hoa TT, Loan HT et al (2020) Investigation into SARS-CoV-2 resistance of compounds in garlic essential oil. ACS Omega 5(14):8312–8320. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c00772

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Asase A, Hesse DN, Simmonds MS (2012) Uses of multiple plants prescriptions for treatment of malaria by some communities in southern Ghana. J Ethnopharmacol 144(2):448–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.09.028

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Roger T, Pierre-Marie M, Igor V, Patrick V (2015) Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of medicinal plants used to treat typhoid fever in Bamboutos division, West Cameroon. J Appl Pharm Sci 5(6):34–49. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2015.50606

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Ssenyange CW, Namulindwa A, Oyik B, Ssebuliba J (2015) Plants used to manage type II diabetes mellitus in selected districts of central Uganda. Afri Health Sci 15(2):496–502. https://doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v15i2.24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Coria-Téllez A, Montalvo-Gonzalez E, Yahia E, Obledo-Vázquez E (2018) Annona muricata: a comprehensive review on its traditional medicinal uses, phytochemicals, pharmacological activities, mechanisms of action and toxicity. Arab J Chem 11(5):662–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.01.004

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Gavamukulya Y, Wamunyokoli F, El-Shemy HA (2017) Annona muricata: Is the natural therapy to most disease conditions including cancer growing in our backyard? A systematic review of its research history and future prospects. Asian Pac J Trop Med 10(9):835–848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apjtm.2017.08.009

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Moghadamtousi SZ, Fadaeinasab M, Nikzad S, Mohan G, Ali HM, Kadir HA (2015) Annona muricata (Annonaceae): A review of its traditional uses, isolated acetogenins and biological activities. Int J Mol Sci 16(7):15625–15658. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160715625

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Abdul Wahab SM, Jantan I, Haque MA, Arshad L (2018) Exploring the leaves of Annona muricata L. as a source of potential anti-inflammatory and anticancer agents. Front Pharmacol 9:661. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.00661

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Adewole SO, Caxton-Martins EA (2006) Morphological changes and hypoglycemic effects of Annona muricata Linn. (Annonaceae) leaf aqueous extract on pancreatic B-cells of streptozotocin-treated diabetic rats. Afr J Biomed Res 9:173–187. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajbr.v9i3.48903

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Wahab NZ, Ibrahim N, Kamarudin MK, Lananan F, Juahir H, Ghazali A et al (2018) Cytotoxicity and antiviral activity of Annona muricata aqueous leaves extract against dengue virus type 2. J Fundam Appl Sci 10(1S):580–589. https://doi.org/10.4314/jfas.v10i1s.41

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Oyebamiji AK, Oladipo EK, Olotu TM, Awoyelu HE, Adamolekun E, Semire B (2020) In-vitro investigation on selected compounds in Annona muricata seed: A potential SARS-CoV nsp12 polymerase inhibitors down regulating 2019-nCoV. Int J Trad Nat Med 10(1):13–23

    Google Scholar 

  56. Trivedi GN, Karlekar JT, Dhameliya HA, Panchal H (2020) A review on the novel coronavirus disease based on in-silico analysis of various drugs and target proteins. J Pure Appl Microbiol 14(suppl 1):849–860. https://doi.org/10.22207/JPAM.14.SPL1.22

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Liu NQ, Van der Kooy F, Verpoorte R (2009) Artemisia afra: A potential flagship for African medicinal plants? S Afr J Bot 75(2):185–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2008.11.001

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. More G, Lall N, Hussein A, Tshikalange TM (2012) Antimicrobial constituents of Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. against periodontal pathogens. Evid Based Complement Altern Med. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/252758

  59. Moyo P, Kunyane P, Selepe MA, Eloff JN, Niemand J, Louw AI, Maharaj VJ, Birkholtz LM (2019) Bioassay-guided isolation and identification of gametocytocidal compounds from Artemisia afra (Asteraceae). Malar J 18(1):65. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-019-2694-1

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Thring SA, Weitz FM (2006) Medicinal plant use in the Bredasdorp/Elim region of the Southern Overberg in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. J Ethnopharmacol 103(2):261–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.08.013

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Lubbe A, Seibert I, Klimkait T, der Kooy F (2012) Ethnopharmacology in overdrive: The remarkable anti-HIV activity of Artemisia annua. J Ethnopharmacol 1419(3):854–859

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Salehi B, Kumar NVA, Şener B, Sharifi-Rad M, Kılıç M, Mahady GB, Vlaisavljevic S, Iriti M, Kobarfard F, Setzer W, Ayatollahi S, Ata A, Sharifi-Rad J (2018) Medicinal plants used in the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus. Int J Mol Sci 19(5):1459. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19051459

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. WHO (2019) Technical document of the use of non-pharmaceutical forms of Artemisia; Malaria Policy Advisory Committee Meeting 2–4 October 2019. Geneva, World Health Organisation Technical report document

  64. van de Venter M, Pruissen M, Koekemoer T, Sowemimo A, Govender S (2014) In vitro anti-HIV and -TB activities of Annona muricata and Artemisia afra extracts. Planta Med 80:P1L29. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1394687

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Li SY, Chen C, Zhang HQ, Guo HY, Wang H, Wang L, Zhang X, Hua SN, Yu J, Xiao PG, Li RS, Tan X (2005) Identification of natural compounds with antiviral activities against SARS-associated coronavirus. Antiviral Res 67(1):18–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2005.02.007

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Orhan IE, Senol Deniz FS (2020) Natural products as potential leads against coronaviruses: could they be encouraging structural models against SARS-CoV-2? Nat Prod Bioprospect 10(4):171–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13659-020-00250-4

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Willcox ML, Burton S, Oyweka R, Namyalo R, Challand S, Lindsey K (2011) Evaluation and pharmacovigilance of projects promoting cultivation and local use of Artemisia annua for malaria. Malar J 10(1):84. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-10-84

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Ogbuewu IP, Odoemenam VU, Obikaonu HO, Opara MN, Emenalom OO, Uchegbu MC (2011) The growing importance of neem (Azadirachta indica a. juss) in agriculture, industry, medicine and environment: A review. Res J Med Plants 5:230–245

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Kumar VS, Navaratnam V (2013) Neem (Azadirachta indica): prehistory to contemporary medicinal uses to humankind. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 3(7):505–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2221-1691(13)60105-7

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Amoateng P, Quansah E, Karikari TK, Asase A, Osei-Safo D, Kukuia KW et al (2018) Medicinal plants used in the treatment of mental and neurological disorders in Ghana. Evid Based Complement Altern Med. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8590381

  71. Xuan TD, Tsuzuki E, Hiroyuki T, Mitsuhiro M, Khanh TD, Chung I (2004) Evaluation on phytotoxicity of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) to crops and weeds. Crop Prot 23(4):335–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2003.09.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Ashfaq UA, Jalil A, Ul Qamar MT (2016) Antiviral phytochemicals identification from Azadirachta indica leaves against HCV NS3 protease: an in silico approach. Nat Prod Res 30(16):1866–1869. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2015.1075527

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Iyare EE, Obaji NN (2014) Effects of aqueous leaf extract of azadirachta indica on some haematological parameters and blood glucose level in female rats. Niger J Exp Clin Biosci 2(1):54. https://doi.org/10.4103/2348-0149.135731

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Dwivedi VD, Tripathi IP, Mishra SK (2016) In silico evaluation of inhibitory potential of triterpenoids from Azadirachta indica against therapeutic target of dengue virus, NS2B-NS3 protease. J Vector Borne Dis 53(2):156–161

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Pooladanda V, Thatikonda S, Godugu C (2020) The current understanding and potential therapeutic options to combat COVID-19. Life Sci 254:117765

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Borkotoky S, Banerjee M (2020) A computational prediction of SARS-CoV-2 structural protein inhibitors from Azadirachta indica (Neem). J Biomol Struct Dyn:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/07391102.2020.1774419

  77. Ather A, Costigliola V (2020) Treatment and control of Covid-19 (Corona Virus Disease 2019) by non-invasive (h.i.p) non-drug therapy in combination anti-influenza an (Oseltamivir (rx) Tamiflue) drug-novel case report. Int J Life Sci 6(2):2480–2486. https://doi.org/10.21276/SSR-IIJLS.2020.6.2.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Tempesta MS (2010) The clinical efficacy of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta in the treatment of malaria. Ghana Med J 44(1):1–2

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Odoh UE, Akwuaka C (2012) Pharmacognostic profile of root of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (lindl.). Schlechter Pharmacogn J 4(28):40–44. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2012.28.8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Martey ON, Shittah-Bay O, Owusu J, Okine LK (2013) The antiplasmodial activity of an herbal antimalarial, am 207 in plasmodium berghei-infected balb/c mice: Absence of organ specific toxicity. J Med Sci 13(7):537–545. https://doi.org/10.3923/jms.2013.537.545

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Osafo N, Mensah KB, Yeboah OK (2017) Phytochemical and pharmacological review of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Lindl.) Schlechter. Adv Pharmacol Sci:3026370. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3026370

  82. Sofowora A (1982) Medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Africa. Wiley, Chichester, pp 221–223

    Google Scholar 

  83. Addy M (2003) Cryptolepis: An african traditional medicine that provides hope for Malaria victims. Herbal Gram 60:54–59

    Google Scholar 

  84. Amissah JN, Osei-Safo D, Asare CM, Missah-Assihene B, Danquah EY, Addae-Mensah I (2016) Influence of age and staking on the growth and cryptolepine concentration in cultivated roots of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Lindl.) Schlt. J Med Plants Res 10(9):113–121

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Gyebi GA, Ogunro OB, Adegunloye AP, Ogunyemi OM, Afolabi SO (2020) Potential inhibitors of coronavirus 3-chymotrypsin-like protease (3CLpro): an insilico screening of alkaloids and terpenoids from African medicinal plants. J Biomol Struct Dyn.:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/07391102.2020.1764868

  86. Buhner SH (2013) In: Ringer N (ed) Natural remedies for emerging resistant and epidemic viral infections: Herbal antivirals. Storey, Massachusetts

    Google Scholar 

  87. WHO (1999) Monographs on selected medicinal plants, vol 1

    Google Scholar 

  88. Nwaekpe JO, Anyaegbunam HN, Okoye BC, Asumugha GN (2015) Promotion of turmeric for the food/pharmaceutical industry in Nigeria. Am J Exp Agric 8(6):335–341

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Sahne F, Mohammadi M, Najafpour GD, Moghadamnia AA (2017) Enzyme-assisted ionic liquid extraction of bioactive compound from turmeric (Curcuma longa L.): Isolation, purification and analysis of curcumin. Indusrial Crops and Products. Ind Crops Prod 95:686–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.11.037

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Pal K, Chowdhury S, Dutta SK, Chakraborty S, Chakraborty M, Pandit GK et al (2020) Analysis of rhizome colour content, bioactive compound profiling and ex-situ conservation of turmeric genotypes (Curcuma longa L.) from sub-Himalayan terai region of India. Ind Crops Prod 150:112401

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Omosa LK, Midiwo O, Kuete V (2017) Medicinal spices and vegetables from Africa therapeutic potential against metabolic, inflammatory, infectious and systemic diseases, Curcuma longa. Elservier, Amsterdam, pp 425–435

    Google Scholar 

  92. Ayati Z, Ramezani M, Amiri MS, Moghadam AT, Rahimi H, Abdollahzade A, Sahebkar A, Emami SA (2019) Ethnobotany, phytochemistry and traditional uses of curcuma spp. and pharmacological profile of two important species (C. longa and C. zedoaria): A review. Curr Pharm Des 25(8):871–935. https://doi.org/10.2174/1381612825666190402163940

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Saronee F, Bekinbo MT, Ojeka SO, Dapper DV (2019) Comparative assessment of methanolic extracts of hog plum (spondias mombin linn.) leaves and turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) rhizomes on blood glucose and glycosylated haemoglobin in male wistar rats. J Appl Sci Environ Manage 23(9):1631–1636

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Wen CC, Kuo YH, Jan JT, Liang PH, Wang SY, Liu HG, Lee CK, Chang ST, Kuo CJ, Lee SS, Hou CC, Hsiao PW, Chien SC, Shyur LF, Yang NS (2007) Specific plant terpenoids and lignoids possess potent antiviral activities against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. J Med Chem 50(17):4087–4095. https://doi.org/10.1021/jm070295s

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Zahedipour F, Hosseini SA, Sathyapalan T, Majeed M, Jamialahmadi T, Al-Rasadi K et al (2020) Potential effects of curcumin in the treatment of COVID -19 infection. Phytother Res 34(11):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6738

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Liu Z, Ying Y (2020) The inhibitory effect of curcumin on virus-induced cytokine storm and its potential use in the associated severe pneumonia. Front Cell Dev Biol 8:479. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2020.00479

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  97. Ampong-Nyarko K, De Datta SK (1991) A handbook for weed control in rice. IRRI, Manila

    Google Scholar 

  98. Jeje TO, Ibraheem O, Brai BIC, Ibukun EO (2016) Pharmacological potential of asthma weed (euphorbia hirta) extract toward eradication of plasmodium berghei in infected albino mice. Int J Toxicol Pharmacol Res 8(3):130–137

    Google Scholar 

  99. Kumar S, Malhotra R, Kumar D (2010) Euphorbia hirta: Its chemistry, traditional and medicinal uses, and pharmacological activities. Pharmacogn Rev 4(7):58–61. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.65327

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  100. Tuhin RH, Begum M, Rahman M, Karim R, Begum T, Ahmed SU et al (2017) Wound healing effect of Euphorbia hirta linn. (Euphorbiaceae) in alloxan induced diabetic rats. BMC Complement Altern Med 17:423. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-017-1930-x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  101. Gyuris A, Szlávik L, Minárovits J, Vasas A, Molnár J, Hohmann J (2009) Antiviral activities of extracts of Euphorbia hirta L. against HIV-1, HIV-2 and SIVmac251. In Vivo 23(3):429–432

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Shahrajabian MH, Sun W, Shen H, Cheng Q (2020) Chinese herbal medicine for SARS and SARS-CoV-2 treatment and prevention, encouraging using herbal medicine for COVID-19 outbreak. Acta Agr Scand B-S P 70(5):437–443

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Onyeji C (2020) Management of coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) – is there a role for complementary and herbal medicinal products? Afr J Complement Altern Med 17(1):33–38. https://doi.org/10.21010/ajtcam.v17i1.4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. AduTutu M, Afful Y, Asante-Appiah K, Lieberman D, Hall JB, Elvin-Lewis M (1979) Chewing stick usage in Southern Ghana. Econ Bot 33(3):320–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Ekene EN, Erhirhie EO (2014) Garcinia kola: A review of its ethnomedicinal, chemical and pharmacological properties. Int J Cur Res Rev 6(11):1–7

    Google Scholar 

  106. Kalu WO, Okafor PN, Ijeh II, Eleazu C (2016) Effect of kolaviron, a biflavanoid complex from Garcinia kola on some biochemical parameters in experimentally induced benign prostatic hyperplasic rats. Biomed Pharmacother 83:1436–1443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2016.08.064

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Seanego CT, Ndip RN (2012) Identification and antibacterial evaluation of bioactive compounds from Garcinia kola (Heckel) seeds. Molecules 17(6):6569–6584. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules17066569

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  108. Konziase B (2015) Protective activity of biflavanones from Garcinia kola against Plasmodium infection. J Ethnopharmacol 172(22):214–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.06.038

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Maňourová A, Leuner O, Tchoundjeu Z, Van Damme P, Verner V, Přibyl O et al (2019) Medicinal potential, utilization and domestication status of bitter kola (Garcinia kola Heckel) in West and Central Africa. Forests 10(2):124. https://doi.org/10.3390/f10020124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Oladele JO, Ajayi EI, Oyeleke OM, Oladele OT, Olowookere BD, Adeniyi BM, Oyewole OI, Oladiji AT (2020) A systematic review on COVID-19 pandemic with special emphasis on curative potentials of Nigeria based medicinal plants. Heliyon 6(9):e04897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04897

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  111. Ikpa BC, Maduka OD, Christian EE, Ikezu JM (2020) Potential plants for treatment and management of COVID-19 in Nigeria. Academic J Chem 5(6):69–80. https://doi.org/10.32861/ajc.56.69.80

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. WHO (2010) Monographs on medicinal plants commonly used in the Newly Independent States (NIS).

    Google Scholar 

  113. Lim TK (2015) Glycyrrhiza glabra. In: Edible medicinal and non-medicinal plants, pp 354–457. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-7276-1_18

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  114. Batiha GE, Beshbishy AM, El-Mleeh A, Abdel-Daim MM, Devkota HP (2020) Traditional uses, bioactive chemical constituents, and pharmacological and toxicological activities of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Fabaceae). Biomolecules 10(3):352. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10030352

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Watt JM, Breyer-Brandwijk MG (1962) Medicinal and poisonous plants of Southern and Eastern Africa. Livingstone, Edinburgh, p 1457

    Google Scholar 

  116. Karahan F, Avsar C, Ozyigit II, Berber I (2016) Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of medicinal plant Glycyrrhiza glabra var. glandulifera from different habitats. Biotech Biotech Equip. 30(4):797–804. https://doi.org/10.1080/13102818.2016.1179590

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Kuang Y, Li B, Fan J, Qiao X, Ye M (2018) Antitussive and expectorant activities of licorice and its major compounds. Biol Org Med Chem 26(1):278–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2017.11.046

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Sun ZG, Zhao TT, Lu N, Yang YA, Zhu HL (2019) Research progress of glycyrrhizic acid on antiviral activity. Mini Rev Med Chem 19(10):826–832. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389557519666190119111125

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Mirzaie A, Halaji M, Dehkordi FS, Ranjbar R, Noorbazargan H (2020) A narrative literature review on traditional medicine options for treatment of corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Complement Ther Clin Pract 40:101214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2020.101214

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  120. Chen L, Hu C, Hood M, Zhang X, Zhang L, Kan J, du J (2020) A novel combination of vitamin C, curcumin and glycyrrhizic acid potentially regulates immune and inflammatory response associated with coronavirus infections: a perspective from system biology analysis. Nutrients 12(4):1193. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12041193

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  121. Fahey JW (2005) Moringa oleifera: A review of the medical evidence for its nutritional therapeutic, and prophylactic properties. Part 1. Trees Life J 1(5):1–24. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420039078.ch12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  122. Popoola JO, Obembe OO (2013) Local knowledge, use pattern and geographical distribution of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae) in Nigeria. J Ethnopharmacol 150(2):682–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.09.043

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Olsen ME, Palada MC, Foidl N, Bate RM (2019) Botany and propagation In: Ebert AW, Joshi RC (eds) The miracle tree: Moringa oleifera. Xlibris Corporation, Indiana

    Google Scholar 

  124. Vergara-Jimenez M, Almatrafi MM, Fernandez ML (2017) Bioactive components in Moringa oleifera leaves protect against chronic disease. Antioxidants (Basel) 6(4):91. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox6040091

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Leone A, Spada A, Battezzati A, Schiraldi A, Aristil J, Bertoli S (2015) Cultivation, Genetic, Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Moringa oleifera Leaves: An overview. Int J Mol Sci 16(12):12791–12835. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160612791

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  126. Laksmiani NL, Larasanty LP, Santika AJ, Prayoga PA, Dewi AK, Dewi NK (2020) Active Compounds Activity from the Medicinal Plants Against SARS-CoV-2 using in Silico Assay. Biomed Pharmacol J 13(2):873–881. https://doi.org/10.13005/bpj/1953

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Khalafalla MM, Abdellatef E, Dafalla HM, Nassrallah AA, Aboul-Enein KM, Lightfoot DA et al (2010) Active principle from Moringa oleifera Lam leaves effective against two leukemias and a hepatocarcinoma. Afr J Biotechnol 9(49):8467–8471. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB10.996

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. Matic I, Guidi A, Kenzo M, Mattei M, Galgani A (2018) Investigation of medicinal plants traditionally used as dietary supplements: A review on Moringa oleifera. J Public Health Afr 9(3):841. https://doi.org/10.4081/jphia.2018.841

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  129. Bhattacharya A, Tiwari P, Sahu PK, Kumar S (2018) A review of the phytochemical and pharmacological characteristics of Moringa oleifera. J Pharm Bioallied Sci 10(4):181–191. https://doi.org/10.4103/JPBS.JPBS_126_18

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  130. Naithani R, Mehta RG, Shukla D, Chandersekera SN, Moriarty RM (2010) Antiviral activity of phytochemicals: A current perspective. In: Watson R, Zibadi S, Preedy V (eds) Dietary components and immune function. Humana Press, New Jersey. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60761-061-8_24

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  131. Imran I, Altaf I, Ashraf M, Javeed A, Munir N (2016) In vitro evaluation of antiviral activity of leaf extracts of Azadirachta indica, Moringa oleifera, and Morus alba against the foot and mouth disease virus on BHK-21 cell line. Sci Asia 42(6):392–396. https://doi.org/10.2306/scienceasia1513-1874.2016.42.392

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Olson ME, Sankaran RP, Fahey JW, Grusak MA, Odee D, Nouman W (2016) Leaf protein and mineral concentrations across the “miracle tree” genus Moringa. PLoS ONE 11(7):e0159782. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159782

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  133. Rasha KA, Elsharbasy FS, Fadlelmula AA (2018) Nutritional values of moringa oleifera, total protein, amino acid, vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, total fat and crude fiber, under the semi-arid conditions of Sudan. J Microb Biochem Technol 10(2):56–58. https://doi.org/10.4172/1948-5948.1000396

    Article  Google Scholar 

  134. Shaji D (2020) Computational Identification of drug lead compounds for COVID-19 from Moringa Oleifera. ChemRxiv. Preprint. https://doi.org/10.26434/chemrxiv.12535913.v1

  135. Padhye S, Banerjee S, Ahmad A, Mohammad R, Sarkar FH (2008) From here to eternity - the secret of Pharaohs: Therapeutic potential of black cumin seeds and beyond. Cancer Ther 6(b):495–510

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  136. Yimer EM, Tuem KB, Karim A, Ur-Rehman N, Anwar F (2019) Nigella sativa L. (Black Cumin): A promising natural remedy for wide range of illnesses. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/1528635

  137. Sahak MK, Kabir N, Abbas G, Draman S, Hashim NH, Hasan Adli DS (2016) The role of nigella sativa and its active constituents in learning and memory. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2016:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/6075679

    Article  Google Scholar 

  138. Ahmad A, Husain A, Mujeeb M, Khan SA, Najmi AK, Siddique NA (2013) A review on therapeutic potential of Nigella sativa: A miracle herb. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 3(5):337–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2221-1691(13)60075-1

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  139. Islam MT, Khan MR, Mishra SK (2018) Phytochemistry, pharmacology and therapeutic promises of Nigella sativa L. Orient Pharm Exp Med 19(2):115–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-019-00363-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  140. Molla S, Azad MK, Al Hasib MA, Hossain MM, Ahammed MS, Rana S et al (2019) A review on antiviral effects of Nigella sativa L. Pharmacologyonline 2:47–53

    Google Scholar 

  141. Ulasli M, Gurses SA, Bayraktar R, Yumrutas O, Oztuzcu S, Igci M, Igci YZ, Cakmak EA, Arslan A (2014) The effects of Nigella sativa (Ns), Anthemis hyalina (Ah) and Citrus sinensis (Cs) extracts on the replication of coronavirus and the expression of TRP genes family. Mol Biol Rep 41(3):1703–1711. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-014-3019-7

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  142. Eldeeb E, Belal A (2020) Two promising herbs that may help in delaying corona virus progression. Int J Trend Sci Res Dev 4(4):764–766 URL: www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd31200.pdf

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Koshak AE, Koshak EA (2020) Nigella sativa L as a potential phytotherapy for coronavirus disease 2019: A mini review of in silico studies. Curr Ther Res 93:100602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.curtheres.2020.100602

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  144. Rahman MT (2020) Potential benefits of combination of nigella sativa and zn supplements to treat COVID-19. J Herb Med 23:100382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2020.100382

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  145. El-Mahmood MA (2009) The use of Psidium guajava Linn. in treating wound, skin and soft tissue infections. Sci Res Essay 4(6):605–611

    Google Scholar 

  146. Barbalho SM, Farinazzi-Machado FM, Goulart RA, Brunnati AS, Ottoboni AM, Nicolau CC (2012) Psidium Guajava (Guava): A Plant of Multipurpose Medicinal Applications. Med Aromat Plants 1(4):1–6. https://doi.org/10.4172/2167-0412.1000104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  147. El-Ahmady SH, Ashour ML, Wink M (2013) Chemical composition and anti-inflammatory activity of the essential oils of Psidium guajava fruits and leaves. J Essent Oil Res 25(6):475–481. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2013.796498

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Magassouba FB, Diallo A, Kouyaté M, Mara F, Mara O, Bangoura O, Camara A, Traoré S, Diallo AK, Zaoro M, Lamah K, Diallo S, Camara G, Traoré S, Kéita A, Camara MK, Barry R, Kéita S, Oularé K, Barry MS, Donzo M, Camara K, Toté K, Berghe DV, Totté J, Pieters L, Vlietinck AJ, Baldé AM (2007) Ethnobotanical survey and antibacterial activity of some plants used in Guinean traditional medicine. J Ethnopharmacol 114(1):44–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.07.009

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Gutiérrez RM, Mitchell S, Solis RV (2008) Psidium guajava: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol 117(1):1–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.01.025

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Innocent E, Hassanali A, Kisinza WN, Mutalemwa PP, Magesa S, Kayombo E (2014) Anti-mosquito plants as an alternative or incremental method for malaria vector control among rural communities of Bagamoyo District, Tanzania. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 10(1):56. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-56

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  151. Irondi EA, Agboola SO, Oboh G, Boligon AA, Athayde ML, Shode FO (2016) Guava leaves polyphenolics-rich extract inhibits vital enzymes implicated in gout and hypertension in vitro. J Intercult Ethnopharmacol 5(2):122–130. https://doi.org/10.5455/jice.20160321115402

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  152. Fukumoto S, Goto T, Hayashi S (2010) Anti-SARS coronavirus agent, and product containing anti-SARS coronavirus agent. Taiwan Patent TW201018473A, 15 April 2010

    Google Scholar 

  153. Tungadi R, Tuloli TS, Abdulkadir W, Thomas N, Hasan AM, Sapiun Z et al (2020) COVID-19: Clinical characteristics and molecular levels of candidate compounds of prospective herbal and modern drugs in Indonesia. Pharm Sci. 26(Covid-19):S12–S23. https://doi.org/10.34172/PS.2020.49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  154. Erlina L, Paramita RI, Kusuma WA, Fadilah F, Tedjo A, Pratomo IP et al (2020) Virtual screening on Indonesian herbal compounds as COVID-19 supportive therapy: machine learning and pharmacophore modeling approaches. BMC Med Inform Decis 1(6):2–35. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-29119/v1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  155. Sombie EN, Tibiri A, Ndo JY, Traore TK, Ouedraogo N, Hilou A et al (2018) Ethnobotanical study and antioxidant activity of anti-hepatitis plants extracts of the COMOE province. Burkina Faso Int J Biol Chem.Sci 12(3):1308–1319. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v12i3.19

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Oforma CC, Udourioh GA, Ojinnaka CM (2019) Characterization of essential oils and fatty acids composition of stored ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). J Appl Sci Environ Manage 23(12):2231–2238

    Google Scholar 

  157. Diatta K, Diatta W, Fall AD, Dieng SIM, Mbaye AI, Sarr A, Seye MB (2019) Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used to treat human diseases in the Tivaouane Department, Senegal. Eur J Med Plants 30(3):1–13. https://doi.org/10.9734/ejmp/2019/v30i330178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  158. Taoheed AA, Tolulope AA, Saidu AB, Odewumi O, Sunday RM, Usman M (2017) Phytochemical properties, proximate and mineral composition of Curcuma longa Linn. and Zingiber officinale Rosc.: A comparative study. J Sci Res Rep 13(4):1–7. https://doi.org/10.9734/JSRR/2017/32623

    Article  Google Scholar 

  159. Mao QQ, Xu XY, Cao SY, Gan RY, Corke H, Beta T, Li HB (2019) Bioactive compounds and bioactivities of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Foods 8(6):185–190. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8060185

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  160. Abdurahman HN, Ranitha M, Azhari HN (2013) Extraction and characterization of essential oil from Ginger (Zingiber officinale roscoe) and Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) by microwave-assisted Hydrodistillation. Int J Chem Environ Eng 4:221–226 URI: http://umpir.ump.edu.my/id/eprint/4996

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Otunola GA, Afolayan AJ (2015) Antidiabetic effect of combined spices of Allium sativum, Zingiber officinale and Capsicum frutescens in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Front Life Sci 4(4):314–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/21553769.2015.1053628

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Kumar NV, Murthy PS, Manjunatha JR, Bettadaiah BK (2014) Synthesis and quorum sensing inhibitory activity of key phenolic compounds of ginger and their derivatives. Food Chem 159:451–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.03.039

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Zhang M, Viennois E, Prasad M, Zhang Y, Wang L, Zhang Z et al (2016) Edible ginger-derived nanoparticles: a novel therapeutic approach for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory bowel disease and colitis-associated cancer. Biomaterials 101:321–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.06.018

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  164. Rathinavel T, Palanisamy M, Palanisamy S, Subramanian A, Thangaswamy S (2020) Phytochemical 6-Gingerol – a promising drug of choice for COVID-19. Int J Adv Sci Eng 6(4):1482–1489. https://doi.org/10.29294/IJASE.6.4.2020.1482-1489

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Mbadiko CM, Inkoto CL, Gbolo BZ, Lengbiye EM, Kilembe JT, Matondo A, Mwanangombo DT, Ngoyi EM, Bongo GN, Falanga CM, Tshibangu DST, Tshilanda DD, Ngbolua KTN, Mpiana PT (2020) A mini review on the phytochemistry, toxicology and antiviral activity of some medically interesting zingiberaceae species. J Complement Alt Med Res 9(4):44–56. https://doi.org/10.9734/jocamr/2020/v9i430150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  166. Prasad A, Muthamilarasan M, Prasad M (2020) Synergistic antiviral effects against SARS-CoV-2 by plant-based molecules. Plant Cell Rep 39(9):1109–1114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-020-02560-w

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  167. Cinatl J, Morgenstern B, Bauer G, Chandra P, Rabenau H, Doerr HW (2003) Glycyrrhizin, an active component of liquorice roots, and replication of SARS-associated coronavirus. Lancet 361(9374):2045–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13615-X

Download references

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

Funding

This review article did not receive funding from any agency.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Federal University Oye Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria

    Olutayo Ademola Adeleye

  2. Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria

    Mbang Nyong Femi-Oyewo, Oluyemisi Adebowale Bamiro, Lateef Gbenga Bakre & Olalekan Adeyinka Balogun-Agbaje

  3. Department of Pharmacology, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria

    Akinyinka Alabi

  4. Department of Plant Science, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria

    Joseph Senu Ashidi

  5. Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria

    Oluwakemi Mary Hassan

  6. Department of Pharmacology, University of Lagos, Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria

    Gbemisola Fakoya

Authors
  1. Olutayo Ademola Adeleye
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mbang Nyong Femi-Oyewo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Oluyemisi Adebowale Bamiro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Lateef Gbenga Bakre
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Akinyinka Alabi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Joseph Senu Ashidi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Olalekan Adeyinka Balogun-Agbaje
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Oluwakemi Mary Hassan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Gbemisola Fakoya
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

OAA: conception, design, literature search, drafting of the manuscript, revision of the manuscript, final approval of the manuscript. OAB: conception, design, literature search, drafting of the manuscript, revision of the manuscript, final approval of the manuscript. LG: literature search, revision of the manuscript, final approval of the manuscript. MN: conception, design, revision of the manuscript, final approval of the manuscript. AA: literature search, drafting of the manuscript, final approval of the manuscript. JS: design, revision of the manuscript, final approval of the manuscript. AO: literature search, drafting of the manuscript, final approval of the manuscript. OM: literature search, drafting of the manuscript, final approval of the manuscript. GF: literature search, drafting of the manuscript, final approval of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Olutayo Ademola Adeleye.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Adeleye, O.A., Femi-Oyewo, M.N., Bamiro, O.A. et al. Ethnomedicinal herbs in African traditional medicine with potential activity for the prevention, treatment, and management of coronavirus disease 2019. Futur J Pharm Sci 7, 72 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-021-00223-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-021-00223-5

Keywords

  • Coronavirus
  • SARS-CoV-2
  • COVID-19
  • Traditional medicine
  • Ethnomedicinal herbs